Ancient Sindh: A Cradle of Civilization and Conquests
Sind, one of the oldest inhabited regions in the world, has been a center of civilization, trade, and cultural fusion for millennia. The mother of Civilizations in Asia, it witnessed the rise and fall of great cities like Mohenjo Daro, conquests by foreign rulers, and the blending of diverse traditions. The fertile land has been shaped by its rivers, deserts, and coasts, which facilitated Harappan civilization and development for over 5,000 years.
What is Sind
Historically Sind meaning “River” referring to the Indus River valley, and the Greek called it “Indos” which means Sindh river but from ancient time this “land of River” is called Sindhu Sauvera or Sindhudesha, meaning the “Land of the Indus”, Dharti Matta, Sindhu, Sindhri, and Sindhu Desh, reflecting its rich heritage, ancient civilizations, and cultural significance.
Sindhudesha, historically had its own language (Lughat), culture, land, river, and flag, making it a distinct civilization. The Sindhi lughat, deeply rooted in Prakrit and Sanskrit, evolved over centuries, absorbing influences from Persian, Arabic, and Turkic languages. The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s earliest, had a unique script that remains undeciphered.
Mehran’s(سنڌ)fertile land was nourished by the Indos River (سنڌو درياه), fostering agriculture and trade. Ancient cities like Mohenjo-Daro thrived as trade hubs, linking Mehran valley to Mesopotamia and Central Asia. Despite various rulers, the Sindh land maintained its linguistic and cultural heritage, influencing Sindhudesha history and identity.
Where is Sindh
Today, Sindh Pakistan, a southeastern province of Pakistan, is the second most populous and third-largest by area. Bordered by Beloetsjistan and Punjab, its capital is Karachi, its economic hub. With 30 districts of Sindh and six divisions, It has a population of 55.7 million and the indus cultural and Chahiyoon jo Daro heritage.
Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BC)
This Sindhudesha was a core part of its Culture, flourishing from 2600 BC. Harappa, a major city, had planned streets, baked brick houses, and advanced drainage. Mohenjo Daro, its iconic site, featured the Great Bath, granaries, and a vast urban layout. The inhabitants of ancient Sindhudesha were called Saindhavas, meaning “people of the Indos.
Chanhudaro, a smaller but significant site near Nawabshah, was a hub for bead-making and metallurgy, indicating strong trade connections. These cities thrived on agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship, forming one of the earliest known civilizations. The decline of the Indus cities around 1900 BCE remains debated, with theories ranging from climate change to invasions.
Aryan & Vedic Period (c. 1500–600 BCE)
The Aryans, an Indo-European group, migrated from Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE, influencing its early history. Previously home to the Indus Civilization, this peaceful land of rivers saw cultural shifts as the Aryans brought Vedic traditions. The Rigveda, composed during this era, references Sindhu Sauvera, highlighting its significance.
They introduced Sanskrit, social structures, and early Indus river valley religion. Pastoral and agrarian lifestyles flourished, with tribal kingdoms forming. This land of rivers played a crucial role in early trade and interactions between Dravidian and Aryan cultures. This period laid the foundations for later Hindu and Buddhist influences in the region.
Achaemenid Persian Rule (516–326 BCE)
In 516 BCE, This land of rivers became part of the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Darius I, marking its first recorded foreign rule. The Sindhudesha was included in the empire’s easternmost province, Hindush, and contributed tribute, including gold and valuable resources. Persian administration introduced efficient governance, trade networks, and infrastructure.
Dharti Matta’s connection to the Persian Empire facilitated cultural exchanges, influencing language, art, and governance. This period also saw the spread of Zoroastrian beliefs alongside local traditions. Persian control lasted until 326 BCE when Alexander the Great’s invasion ended Achaemenid rule, leading to further transformations in its political and cultural landscape.
Greek Rule under Alexander the Great (327–325 BC)
In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great invaded, and defeated the Achaemenid Persians. His army crossed the Indus River valley India, facing resistance from local rulers, including King Sambus and the Mallians. Despite challenges, Alexander established control, integrated into his vast empire.
Greek administration introduced Hellenistic influences in art, governance, and trade. However, after Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and Greek rule weakened. Dharti Matta later came under the control of the Maurya Empire (316-180 CE). Alexander’s brief rule left a lasting impact, fostering cultural exchanges between Greek and Indian civilizations, influencing art, language, and governance in the region.
Indo Greek, Indo Scythian & Indo Parthian Rule (185 BC–105 BC)
From 185 BC to 105 BC, Hind Sindh witnessed successive rule by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, and Indo-Parthians, shaping its cultural and political landscape. The Indo-Greeks, descendants of Alexander’s generals, introduced Hellenistic influences in governance, art, and coinage.
Around 90 BCE, the Indo-Scythians, a Central Asian nomadic group, displaced the Indo-Greeks, bringing their own traditions and military strategies. By the 1st century CE, the Indo-Parthians, of Iranian origin, took control, continuing Persian and Hellenistic influences. These rulers promoted trade, Buddhism, and cultural exchanges between the East and West. Their rule ended with the rise of the Kushan Empire in this region.
Kushan Empire (105–250 BC)
The Kushan Empire (c. 30–375 CE), established by the Yuezhi nomads from Central Asia, expanded into regions including Sindhu Sauvera. Under rulers like Kanishka the Great, the empire became a hub for trade, connecting the Silk Road to maritime routes. Sindhu thrived as a center for cultural exchange, blending Greek, Persian, and Indian influences.
Buddhism flourished, with the construction of stupas and monasteries. Kushan coinage, featuring diverse deities and scripts, reflects this syncretism. The empire’s decline in the 3rd century led to fragmented rule, eventually giving way to the rise of the Sassanian Empire in the region.
The Sassanian Empire (224–651 BC)
This extended its influence into Sindhri around 250 CE, following the decline of the Kushan Empire. Sassanian control introduced Persian administrative practices and cultural elements to the region. Evidence of their presence includes gold coins modeled after Sassanian rulers from Shapur II to Peroz I, minted between 325 and 480 CE in areas like Sindhu Sauvera, Baluchistan, and Kutch.
These coins, featuring the Brahmi script character “Śrī” alongside royal portraits, suggest a period of significant Persian influence. The Sasanians’ engagement in Sindhu Sauvera facilitated trade and cultural exchanges, leaving a lasting impact on the region’s historical trajectory.
Huna invasions
The Huna invasions occurred during the 5th century CE, significantly impacting regions like Gandhara and Punjab. The Rai dynasty, a Buddhist ruling family, emerged in Sindhu Sauvera around 489 CE, governing until approximately 632 CE. Therefore, the Huna invasions preceded and possibly influenced the establishment of the Rai dynasty in Sindhu Sauvera.
Rai Dynasty
During the Rai Dynasty (489–632 CE), the land of rivers experienced stability and prosperity. The Rai rulers, of Brahmin descent, governed a vast region, including parts of modern-day Pakistan and India. Their capital was Aror (near Rohri). The dynasty promoted Buddhism, Hinduism, and trade, maintaining strong commercial ties with Persia and China.
They built forts, temples, and irrigation systems, contributing to its economic and cultural growth. The last ruler, Rai Sahasi II, was overthrown by his Brahmin minister Chach, who founded the Brahmin Dynasty. The fall of the Rai Dynasty marked a significant shift in its political landscape.
| Ruler | Reign | Notable Aspects |
|---|---|---|
| Rai Diwa ji | c. 485–521 CE | The founder of Rai Dynasty |
| Rai Sahasi I | c. 521–540 CE | Strengthened the military and administration. |
| Rai Sahasi II | c. 540–565 CE | Continued stability and economic growth. |
| Rai Sahasi III | c. 565–606 CE | Focused on trade expansion and diplomatic relations. |
| Rai Sahasi IV | c. 606–632 CE | Last ruler; power weakened, leading to the rise of the Chach Dynasty. |
Chach Dynasty
The Chach Dynasty (632–712 CE) was founded by Chach of Alor, a Brahmin minister who overthrew the last Rai ruler, Rai Sahasi II. Chach expanded its territory, strengthened administration, and promoted Hinduism and Buddhism. His successors, Chandar and Raja Dahir, continued his policies.
Raja Dahir, the last ruler, faced growing threats from external invasions. In 712 CE, he was martyred fighting invaders, marking the end of the Chach Dynasty. His death led to major political and cultural shifts in the region. Despite its fall, the dynasty played a crucial role in shaping its history and identity.
| Ruler | Reign | Notable Aspects |
|---|---|---|
| Chach of Alor | 632–671 CE | Founded the Chach Dynasty; expanded its borders; strengthened administration. |
| Chandar | 671–679 CE | Younger brother of Chach; continued expansion and consolidation of power. |
| Raja Dahir | 679–712 CE | Last ruler; fought against foreign invaders; martyred in 712 CE, marking the end of the dynasty. |
Islamic Rule and Caliphate Period (712–1010 CE)
The Islamic Rule and Caliphate Period began with the Umayyad Caliphate, when Mohammad bin Qasim conquered Sindhri in 712 CE, integrating it into the Umayyad Caliphate. He established Islamic governance, followed by successive Arab governors under Umayyad rule.
During the Abbasid Caliphate (750–861 CE), Abbasid-appointed governors administered though direct control waned over time. The Habbari Dynasty (861–1024 CE) emerged as local Muslim rulers under Abbasid suzerainty, with notable emirs including Umar ibn Abd al Aziz al Habbari, Abdullah ibn Umar al Habbari, and Ali ibn Umar al Habbari.
| Caliphate/Dynasty | Period | Notable Rulers |
|---|---|---|
| Umayyad Caliphate | 712–750 CE | – Mohammad bin Qasim (Arab general, invader) |
| – Successive Arab governors under Umayyad rule | ||
| Abbasid Caliphate | 750–861 CE | – Abbasid-appointed governors to administer |
| – Decline of direct Arab rule | ||
| Habbari Dynasty | 861–1024 CE | – Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Habbari (Founder) |
| – Abdullah ibn Umar al-Habbari | ||
| – Umar ibn Abdullah al-Habbari | ||
| – Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Habbari | ||
| – Ali ibn Umar al-Habbari | ||
| – Isa ibn Ali al-Habbari | ||
| – Manbi ibn Ali al-Habbari |
This period was marked by the introduction and establishment of Islamic governance, culture, and religion, laying the foundation for its subsequent historical developments.
Medieval Native Dynasties (1024–1591 CE)
The Soomra dynasty, ruled from 1026 to 1356 CE, was led by several notable rulers. Below is a brief overview of each:
Dodo-I (1068–1092 CE)
Dodo-I ascended the throne in 1068 CE, succeeding his father, Bhungar-I. His reign was marked by efforts to consolidate Soomra rule and strengthen the kingdom’s defenses. Dodo-I focused on administrative reforms and fostering economic stability, laying the groundwork for future prosperity in the region.
Chanesar (First Reign: 1222–1228 CE; Second Reign: 1236–1237 CE)
Chanesar, son of Bhungar-II, first ruled from 1222 to 1228 CE. His reign was interrupted by Ganhwar-I but resumed briefly from 1236 to 1237 CE. Chanesar’s leadership was characterized by internal power struggles and efforts to maintain the dynasty’s influence amid regional challenges.
Dodo-II (1181–1195 CE)
Dodo-II, grandson of Dodo-I, ruled from 1181 to 1195 CE. His tenure focused on strengthening the kingdom’s infrastructure and promoting trade. Dodo-II’s administration contributed to a period of relative peace and economic growth.
Bhungar-I (1053–1068 CE)
Bhungar-I, son of Soomar, ruled from 1053 to 1068 CE. He continued his father’s policies, emphasizing agricultural development and fortification of key settlements. Bhungar-I’s reign was instrumental in expanding the dynasty’s territorial control.
Bhungar-II (1195–1222 CE)
Bhungar-II, son of Chanesar, ruled from 1195 to 1222 CE. His leadership focused on cultural patronage and enhancing the kingdom’s prosperity. Bhungar-II’s reign saw the flourishing of arts and literature.
Duda
Specific details about Duda’s reign are limited in historical records. As a member of the Soomra dynasty, Duda likely played a role in the administrative or military affairs of the kingdom during his time.
Hameer
Hameer, also known as Hamir, ruled during the mid-14th century. His reign faced challenges from external invasions and internal dissent. Hameer’s leadership was marked by efforts to defend the kingdom’s sovereignty and maintain stability.
Sanghar (1092–1107 CE)
Sanghar, son of Dodo-I, ruled from 1092 to 1107 CE. His tenure focused on consolidating power and expanding the kingdom’s influence. Sanghar’s reign contributed to the Soomra dynasty’s continued prominence in the region.
The Arghun and Tarkhan Dynasties (1524–1591 CE) marked significant periods in Sindhi history, characterized by the rule of Central Asian dynasties before the Mughal annexation. Below is a brief overview of key rulers from these dynasties:
Shah Beg Arghun (r. 1524–1526 CE):
Founder of the Arghun Dynasty, Shah Beg Arghun established control over Sindhu region in 1524. His reign marked the beginning of Central Asian influence in the region, setting the stage for subsequent Arghun rulers.
Shah Hussain Arghun (r. 1526–1555 CE):
Son of Shah Beg Arghun, Shah Hussain Arghun succeeded his father in 1526. His rule extended over three decades, during which he consolidated Arghun power in this area.
Mirza Isa Tarkhan (r. 1555–1567 CE):
Founder of the Tarkhan Dynasty, Mirza Isa Tarkhan took control after the decline of the Arghun Dynasty. His reign marked the continuation of Central Asian governance in the region.
Mirza Baqi Tarkhan (r. 1585–1591 CE):
The last independent ruler of the Tarkhan Dynasty, Mirza Baqi Tarkhan’s reign concluded with the Mughal annexation in 1591. His rule marked the end of local dynastic governance before the establishment of Mughal authority.
The Kalhora Dynasty (1701–1783 CE) and the Talpur Dynasty (1783–1843 CE) were pivotal in shaping its history, each contributing uniquely to the region’s political and cultural landscape. Below are tables summarizing the key rulers of these dynasties along with brief descriptions of their reigns
Kalhora Dynasty (1701–1783 CE)
| Ruler | Reign | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Mian Nasir Muhammad Kalhoro | 1657–1692 CE | Recognized as a spiritual leader, he laid the groundwork for Kalhora ascendancy. |
| Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro | 1701–1719 CE | Officially appointed as Subedar (governor) by the Mughal Empire, marking the formal beginning of Kalhora rule. |
| Mian Noor Muhammad Kalhoro | 1719–1755 CE | Strengthened its autonomy, engaged in conflicts with the Mughal Empire and local rivals, and focused on internal development. |
| Mian Muradyab Khan Kalhoro | 1755–1757 CE | His brief reign was marked by internal strife and challenges to Kalhora authority. |
| Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro | 1757–1772 CE | Known for rebuilding cities, promoting trade, and establishing peace; founded Hyderabad in 1768 as the capital. |
| Mian Sarfaraz Khan Kalhoro | 1772–1775 CE | Faced internal rebellions and external threats, leading to a weakened state and eventual overthrow. |
| Mian Abdul Nabi Kalhoro | 1775–1783 CE | The last Kalhora ruler; his inability to maintain control led to the rise of the Talpur dynasty. |
Talpur Dynasty (1783–1843 CE)
| Ruler | Reign | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur | 1783–1801 CE | Founder of the Talpur dynasty; established control after defeating the Kalhoras; initiated a period of stability and cultural growth. |
| Mir Ghulam Ali Khan Talpur | 1801–1811 CE | Continued policies of consolidation and development; maintained peaceful relations with neighboring states. |
| Mir Karam Ali Khan Talpur | 1811–1828 CE | Focused on administrative reforms and strengthening the military; his reign saw relative prosperity. |
| Mir Murad Ali Khan Talpur | 1828–1833 CE | Worked towards internal stability; faced challenges from increasing British influence in the region. |
| Mir Noor Muhammad Khan Talpur | 1833–1840 CE | His tenure experienced growing external pressures and internal dissent; struggled to maintain sovereignty. |
| Mir Naseer Khan Talpur | 1840–1843 CE | The last Talpur ruler; defeated by the British East India Company, leading to the annexation of into Hindustan. |
These dynasties played crucial roles in its development, leaving lasting legacies in its history and culture.
British Era (1843–1947 CE)
In 1843, the British East India Company, led by Major General Charles Napier, sought to expand its influence into Sindh, then under the rule of the Talpur Amirs. Despite prior treaties, tensions escalated, leading to the Battle of Miani on February 17, 1843. Napier’s force of approximately 2,800 troops confronted a significantly larger Talpur army, estimated at 30,000.
Despite being outnumbered, the disciplined British forces secured a decisive victory, resulting in the deaths of around 2,000 Talpur soldiers. This triumph led to the annexation into Great India, marking the end of local rule and the beginning of British colonial governance in the region.
British Colonial Rule
| Period | Description |
|---|---|
| Annexation (1843 CE) | The British East India Company, led by General Charles Napier, annexed after defeating the Talpur rulers at the Battle of Miani on February 17, 1843. |
| Sindh in India (1843–1936 CE) | Post-annexation, it was merged into the Bombay Presidency, leading to administrative and economic changes. |
| Separate Sindh Province Status (1936–1947 CE) | In 1936, it was separated from the Bombay Presidency and established as a distinct province within British India. |
| Role in Independence Movement | Sind Karachi held great significance in the Pakistan Movement, with Karachi becoming the nation’s first capital after Pakistan gained independence in 1947. |
During British rule, Sindh underwent significant infrastructural development, including the expansion of the railway network and the establishment of educational institutions.
Sindhi Flag
The ancient Sindh flag varied across different ruling periods, reflecting the region’s diverse history. During the IVC, no recorded flag exists, but seals suggest symbolic insignia. The Rai and Brahman Dynasties likely used Hindu-influenced banners with religious symbols.
Under Arab rule , Sindh adopted black and green Islamic banners, introduced by Muhammad bin Qasim. The Soomra and Samma Dynasties may have used crescent or local Sindhi motifs.
Later, the Talpurs used red and green banners with tribal emblems. Sindh’s flag history represents its cultural and political transformations.
However, the period also saw economic exploitation and cultural changes that impacted the local population. The culmination of political and social movements during this era contributed to Sindh Dharti’s eventual inclusion in the independent state of Pakistan in 1947, forming part of the four provinces of Pakistan.
Conclusion
Sind Pakistan history reflects a tapestry of significant achievements and formidable challenges. As the cradle of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, it showcased early advancements in urban planning and trade. The region’s strategic location made it a nexus for various cultures, including Persian, Greek, Arab, and Central Asian influences.
The 8th-century Arab conquest introduced Islam, profoundly shaping its cultural and religious landscape. Periods of local rule, such as under the Soomra and Talpur dynasties, highlighted indigenous governance and cultural flourishing. Conversely, invasions by external powers like the Mughals and the British brought both infrastructural development and colonial exploitation.
Despite these fluctuations, Dharti Matta has maintained a resilient identity, contributing richly to the broader tapestry of South Asian history.
Disclaimer: Sindhi Tarikh, including the Soomra Dynasty, spans centuries, and historical records may differ. While efforts ensure accuracy, variations exist across sources due to differing interpretations, lost records, and evolving research.